Category Archives: Religion/Lifestyle

Gay History: Finding Home at Mandate — St Kilda After Dark

Article, Autobiography, Gay Interest, History, Icons, Religion/Lifestyle, Social History, , , , , ,

I came out in 1981. My first experience of a gay night in a club had been at the University Club at 100 Collins Street, in the city: a first glimpse of a world that, until then, I had only approached from the edges. Then I discovered Mandate in St Kilda—and found my home.

From authors ephemera collection

That is how I remember it. Not as a footnote in a list of Melbourne venues, but as a place where the music, the men, the clothes and the atmosphere all seemed to make sense to me. Mandate was somewhere I wanted to go back to. Somewhere I felt I belonged.

Melbourne had plenty of gay history before Mandate. There were bars, private clubs, social nights and venues where gay men gathered, sometimes openly and sometimes with discretion. The University Club was among the city venues of the 1970s and early 1980s; the La Trobe Journal’s history of Melbourne’s gay and lesbian venues lists it as operating from 1976 to 1981, with both mixed and men-only nights. But much of the earlier scene was scattered across the city, and a gay night might mean a particular evening at a pub rather than a venue built around gay customers. (latrobejournal.slv.vic.gov.au, emelbourne.net.au)

Mandate represented something different. It operated upstairs at 31 Carlisle Street from 1980 to 1989. The Australian Queer Archives describes it as a full-time gay bar and disco that attracted crowds throughout the week, at a time when venues often relied on a single gay night. It wasn’t Melbourne’s first gay gathering place, but it was an unusually visible, purpose-built expression of a gay social life that was becoming more confident and more public. (alga.org.au)

The stairs, the bar, the dance floor

I remember a backroom beneath the stairs at the entrance. It was part of Mandate’s world, but it wasn’t my scene, and I never used it. What I loved was upstairs: the dance bar, the floor, the men and the music.

The copper dance floor could be slick with talc. There were barred areas around it, and kegs served as tables. It had a rough, physical quality that suited the place. The room didn’t feel designed to make you sit decorously with a drink. It felt made for movement, bodies and noise.

Mandate introduced me to Hi-NRG dance music, which I loved. The beat seemed to belong to the room: driving, bright, insistent. You could lose yourself in it. You could watch the crowd, find someone’s eye, dance with a man, or simply be there among other men without having to explain yourself.

That feeling of ease mattered. A venue could be more than a place to drink or dance. It could be a place where the way you dressed, the men you looked at, and the way you moved through a room did not need translating for the outside world.

Jeans, leather and the clone look

Mandate was a hangout for the emerging clone culture. Jeans, T-shirts and flannelette shirts could feel almost like a uniform; leather vests and cowboy hats fitted naturally into the mix. Short hair and moustaches were part of the look too. It was a deliberately masculine style, but it wasn’t one single costume. Men made it their own.

The style reflected a wider gay male fashion that had spread internationally: denim, boots, plaid shirts, leather and facial hair. A 1994 academic study of clone identity describes much the same visual vocabulary. At Mandate, though, this wasn’t an abstract trend to me. It was what I saw around me, night after night, and part of the world I was drawn into. (pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)

Bandanas and keys in pockets could also carry messages about what a man wanted sexually. These codes let men signal interests and preferences without announcing them across a crowded room. The meanings could depend on colour, placement and context, but what stays with me is the atmosphere of shared understanding: people reading small details that might pass unnoticed elsewhere. The hanky code has been documented as a form of signalling used in gay leather culture from the 1970s into the 1980s. (digitalcommons.uri.edu, intellectdiscover.com)

And Mandate was very, very male. Public sex was not unusual…{ know this from experience…, even in the upstairs bar. That was part of the club’s character, though not every man was there for the same reason. Some came to dance; some to cruise; some to meet friends; some to see what might happen. I loved the dance floor. The backroom and the barred spaces weren’t my territory, but they belonged to the same scene.

It’s easy, looking back, to turn a place like Mandate into a symbol and smooth away those differences. But it mattered partly because it could hold them together: dancing, flirting, fashion, sexual signalling, spectacle and ordinary socialising all under one roof.

Some spelling errors
From authors ephemera collection

St Kilda had more than one kind of gay night

Mandate was part of a wider St Kilda landscape. At the Prince of Wales, Pokey’s brought another kind of gay night: Sunday gatherings upstairs, with drag and a different theatrical energy. I used to go there. The Prince of Wales’ own history remembers the hotel’s gay and lesbian community, its drag shows and Sunday-night gatherings; the La Trobe account dates Pokey’s to 1977–1992 and describes the upstairs Band Room as its home. (latrobejournal.slv.vic.gov.au, theprince.com.au)

Pokey’s and Mandate weren’t interchangeable. One had the draw of drag and performance; the other, for me, meant the dance bar, the floor, the Hi-NRG and the masculine world gathered around it. Both made St Kilda a place where gay men could find a night out, but each offered its own pleasures and its own crowd.

There were other ways to spend an evening, too. Friends might go from one venue to another, or finish late with coffee somewhere that stayed open. The NGV’s account of Melbourne nightlife recalls a patron who went to Mandate and other clubs before stopping at Trish’s Coffee Lounge in North Melbourne around three or four in the morning. That’s a small detail, but it evokes a whole rhythm of going out: one place leading to the next, with the night stretching well past the hour when the rest of the city had gone quiet. (ngv.vic.gov.au)

From authors ephemera collection

A club in a changing decade

Mandate opened at a turning point. Victoria repealed its sodomy law in 1980, with decriminalisation taking effect in 1981. The club was already opening its doors as those changes were unfolding. It was an openly gay venue in a society where public acceptance still lagged behind legal reform. The Australian Queer Archives records repeated criticism from the local council, while the heritage assessment places Mandate among the venues that appeared around the time of law reform. (alga.org.au, d1juosud05elln.cloudfront.net)

The 1980s also brought HIV and AIDS, fear and grief, and hostility directed at gay men. The history of gay nightlife cannot be told as an uncomplicated story of liberation. A dance floor could offer a sense of freedom and connection, while outside the club there were still laws, prejudice and danger. Inside, men built ways to be together, to signal to each other and to live parts of their lives in the open.

Mandate’s record is still incomplete. The archives cite Ken Payne’s 1989 City Rhythm article, “After eight years of Mandate, it’s time for the last waltz,” along with a 1999 Brother Sister piece. Those sources, the histories gathered by the Australian Queer Archives, and the memories of patrons together give us more than dates and addresses. They let us start to recover what the place felt like. (alga.org.au)

From authorsbephemera collection

Finding home

When I think of Mandate, I think of that copper floor, perhaps with talc underfoot; of kegs repurposed as tables; of the bars and the men around them; of flannelette shirts, leather vests and cowboy hats; and of Hi-NRG filling the room. I think of a place that was unapologetically male, where different men could come for different reasons, and where I found a scene that felt like mine.

I had come out in 1981. The University Club gave me my first taste of a gay night in a club. Mandate gave me something more lasting: a place I wanted to return to, a dance floor I loved, and a sense of home.

Nostalgia can make a venue glow brighter than it did at the time. It can soften the awkward nights and sharpen the happy ones. But remembering is not the same as pretending everything was perfect. It is recognising that these places mattered: for the men who danced, the men who met one another, the men who watched from the bar, and the men who found, as I did, somewhere they could belong.

Mandate is gone. The building on Carlisle Street remains, but the upper-floor club has become apartments. The room where so many different nights unfolded is now private space. What survives is the written record, the photographs and ephemera that have been kept, and the memories people are willing to share. (d1juosud05elln.cloudfront.net)

For those of us who were there, the details are still vivid: copper underfoot, talc in the air, the beat rising, and a room full of men who knew exactly where they wanted to be.

Tim Alderman ©️2026

Sources

Australian Queer Archives, A History of LGBTIQ+ Victoria in 100 Places and Objects, “Mandate.” (alga.org.au)

La Trobe Journal, “Aspects of Gay and Lesbian Life in Seventies Melbourne.” (latrobejournal.slv.vic.gov.au)

Heritage Victoria, Greyhound Hotel, St Kilda: Cultural Heritage Values Assessment. (d1juosud05elln.cloudfront.net)

The Prince Hotel, “Our History.” (theprince.com.au)

National Gallery of Victoria, “Sites of refuge, connection, creation, resistance and loss: the queer bar and nightclub in the twentieth century.” (ngv.vic.gov.au)

Barry D. Adam, “Political-economic construction of gay male clone identity,” Journal of Homosexuality (1994). (pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)

Buddhism 101: Mahayana Buddhism – The Great Vehicle

Article, General Interest, History, Religion/Lifestyle, ,

Introduction

Of the three major traditions of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism is the largest, followed today by hundreds of millions of people across East Asia and increasingly throughout the Western world. Its name, Mahayana, means “The Great Vehicle”, reflecting its central ideal of carrying all living beings towards enlightenment rather than focusing solely on individual liberation.

Rich in philosophy, symbolism, art and compassion, Mahayana Buddhism has inspired magnificent temples, towering statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, elegant Zen gardens, elaborate rituals and some of the world’s greatest works of religious literature. While remaining firmly rooted in the teachings of the historical Buddha, Mahayana developed new interpretations that placed universal compassion at the very heart of Buddhist practice.

The Origins of Mahayana

Mahayana Buddhism emerged in India approximately four to five centuries after the death of Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Buddha. Rather than appearing suddenly, it developed gradually as monks and scholars reflected on how the Buddha’s teachings could be understood more broadly.

By around the first century BCE, new scriptures began circulating. These texts presented fresh philosophical ideas while affirming the Buddha’s original goal of ending suffering. Over time they formed the foundation of what became known as Mahayana Buddhism.

Its followers described their path as the “Great Vehicle” because they believed it offered a way for all beings—not merely monks—to attain enlightenment.

Why “The Great Vehicle”?

The word vehicle is used as a metaphor.

Imagine a great ship crossing a vast ocean. It does not carry only one passenger but everyone who wishes to board.

Likewise, Mahayana teaches that enlightenment should not be sought solely for oneself. Instead, one should work tirelessly so that every living being may eventually become free from suffering.

This ideal distinguishes Mahayana from earlier Buddhist traditions, which Mahayana writers referred to as Hinayana, or “Lesser Vehicle.” Today, however, that term is generally avoided because it is considered dismissive. The surviving early Buddhist tradition is known as Theravada, and modern Buddhists generally treat both traditions with mutual respect.

The Bodhisattva Ideal

The defining feature of Mahayana Buddhism is the Bodhisattva.

A Bodhisattva is someone who has generated the sincere aspiration to become fully enlightened but chooses to postpone final Buddhahood until all beings have the opportunity to awaken.

Rather than seeking liberation alone, the Bodhisattva vows:

“However innumerable sentient beings are, I vow to save them.”

This spirit of limitless compassion lies at the heart of Mahayana practice.

The Bodhisattva becomes both teacher and companion, helping others along the path while continuing to develop wisdom and compassion.

Compassion and Wisdom

Mahayana teaches that two qualities must develop together:

Compassion (Karuṇā)

The sincere wish to relieve the suffering of all beings.

Wisdom (Prajñā)

The deep understanding of reality as it truly is.

Compassion without wisdom can become misguided emotion.

Wisdom without compassion can become cold and detached.

Together they represent the perfect balance.

The Bodhisattvas

Unlike Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana places great emphasis on celestial Bodhisattvas who symbolise different aspects of enlightenment.

Among the best known are:

Avalokiteśvara

The Bodhisattva of Infinite Compassion.

Known as Guanyin in China and Kannon in Japan, Avalokiteśvara is perhaps the most beloved figure in Mahayana Buddhism. Countless temples are dedicated to this embodiment of mercy and compassion.

Mañjuśrī

The Bodhisattva of Wisdom.

Usually depicted holding a flaming sword that cuts through ignorance and delusion.

Samantabhadra

The Bodhisattva of Practice.

He represents the application of wisdom through compassionate action.

Kṣitigarbha

The Bodhisattva who vows not to attain Buddhahood until all hell realms are emptied.

He symbolises hope, perseverance and boundless compassion.

Many Buddhas

While Theravada focuses primarily on the historical Buddha, Mahayana teaches that countless Buddhas exist throughout the universe.

Among the most important are:

Amitābha Buddha

Associated with the Western Pure Land.

Faith in Amitābha forms the basis of Pure Land Buddhism, one of the largest schools in East Asia.

Vairocana Buddha

Represents the universal Buddha whose wisdom permeates all existence.

Medicine Buddha

Associated with physical and spiritual healing.

Emptiness (Śūnyatā)

One of Mahayana’s greatest philosophical contributions is the doctrine of Emptiness.

The word can be misleading.

It does not mean that nothing exists.

Instead, it teaches that nothing possesses permanent, independent existence.

Everything exists because of countless causes and conditions.

A flower depends upon:

sunlight

rain

soil

insects

seasons

time

Without these relationships, the flower could not exist.

Everything in the universe is similarly interconnected.

Recognising this frees us from attachment and suffering.

The Heart Sutra

Perhaps the most famous Mahayana text is the Heart Sutra.

Though remarkably brief, it contains one of Buddhism’s most profound statements:

“Form is emptiness; emptiness is form.”

This means that everything we experience exists through interdependence rather than independent permanence.

The Heart Sutra is recited daily in countless temples throughout Asia.

The Lotus Sutra

Another influential scripture is the Lotus Sutra.

It teaches that all beings possess the potential for Buddhahood.

No one is excluded.

The Lotus Sutra became especially important in Japan, influencing traditions such as Nichiren Buddhism, which places great emphasis on its teachings and the chanting of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo.

Schools of Mahayana

Over the centuries Mahayana developed into several distinctive schools.

Zen (Chan)

Originating in China as Chan before flourishing in Japan as Zen, this tradition emphasises meditation, direct experience and mindful awareness.

Rather than relying heavily on intellectual study, Zen encourages practitioners to experience reality directly.

Pure Land

One of the largest Buddhist traditions in the world.

Practitioners place their trust in Amitābha Buddha, aspiring to be reborn in the Pure Land where enlightenment is easier to attain.

Nichiren Buddhism

Based on the Lotus Sutra, Nichiren Buddhism teaches that chanting Nam-myoho-renge-kyo awakens the Buddha nature already present within each individual and encourages positive transformation in everyday life.

Tiantai and Huayan

Highly philosophical schools that developed sophisticated understandings of the interconnected nature of reality and the unity of all existence.

Everyday Practice

Although practices vary between schools, Mahayana Buddhists commonly engage in:

Meditation

Chanting sutras

Reciting mantras

Acts of compassion

Making offerings

Studying Buddhist scriptures

Mindfulness in daily life

Supporting their local community

The goal is not merely personal peace but becoming a source of peace for others.

Mahayana Around the World

Today Mahayana Buddhism predominates in:

China

Japan

South Korea

Vietnam

Taiwan

Singapore

Mongolia (alongside Vajrayana influences)

It has also spread widely throughout Europe, North America and Australia.

Its emphasis on compassion, social engagement and universal enlightenment has attracted many modern practitioners.

Misconceptions

One common misconception is that Mahayana “changed” Buddhism.

A better understanding is that Mahayana represents one major historical development within Buddhism. It shares with Theravada the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, karma, rebirth and the goal of liberation from suffering. Its distinctive contribution is the emphasis on the Bodhisattva ideal, a vast cosmology and a rich body of philosophical literature.

Another misconception is that Mahayana is less rigorous than other forms of Buddhism. In reality, many Mahayana traditions require lifelong study, disciplined meditation and ethical practice.

Mahayana Buddhism invites practitioners to look beyond their own suffering and recognise their profound connection with all life. It teaches that wisdom and compassion are inseparable, and that genuine enlightenment naturally expresses itself through kindness, generosity and the wish that every being may find peace.

Whether expressed through the quiet simplicity of Zen meditation, the devotional faith of Pure Land Buddhism, the chanting of the Lotus Sutra in Nichiren practice, or the philosophical depth of the Heart Sutra, Mahayana remains a living tradition whose central message is both timeless and deeply human: that our own awakening is intimately bound to the well-being of others.

In a world often marked by division and conflict, the “Great Vehicle” continues to offer a vision of shared compassion, reminding us that no one truly travels the path alone.

Tim Alderman ©️2026

Sources

Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices

Paul Williams, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations

Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought in India

The Heart Sutra (Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya)

Damien Keown, Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction

The Lotus Sutra (Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra)

Rupert Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism

John Snelling, The Buddhist Handbook

For the next article in your Buddhism 101 series, it would flow naturally to explore Vajrayana Buddhism – The Diamond Vehicle, completing the overview of the three major Buddhist traditions before diving into individual schools and practices.

The Medici Popes – Part V

Article, Church History, General Interest, History, Religion/Lifestyle, ,

The Legacy of the Medici Papacy: Renaissance Splendour, Religious Upheaval, and the End of an Era

“The Medici transformed the papacy into the greatest court in Europe—but in doing so, they also helped unleash forces that forever changed Christianity.”

The story of the Medici popes is one of dazzling contradiction. They presided over one of the greatest explosions of artistic achievement in human history while simultaneously steering the Roman Catholic Church into one of its deepest crises. They were patrons of genius, lovers of luxury, masters of political intrigue and, at times, surprisingly capable administrators. Yet they were also products of an age in which the Church had become entangled in wealth, dynastic ambition and secular politics.

Over the course of this series we have met three Medici popes—Leo X, Clement VII and the short-lived Leo XI. Together they represented the extraordinary rise of one Florentine banking family to the highest office in Christendom. Their reigns coincided with the flowering of the Renaissance, the birth of Protestantism, the sack of Rome and the beginning of the Catholic Church’s painful journey towards reform.

Their legacy deserves neither outright condemnation nor uncritical admiration. Instead, it is a cautionary tale about what can happen when spiritual authority becomes inseparable from political and financial power.

The Renaissance Papacy at its Zenith

By the early sixteenth century, the papacy had become something almost unimaginable to modern Catholics.

The Pope was no longer simply the Bishop of Rome or spiritual leader of Western Christianity. He was a prince, monarch, diplomat, military commander and one of Europe’s greatest patrons of the arts.

The Vatican rivalled the royal courts of France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire.

Magnificent banquets, elaborate ceremonies and artistic commissions projected both religious devotion and worldly prestige.

The Medici embraced this vision wholeheartedly.

Leo X famously declared that God had given the papacy to the Medici family and they intended to enjoy it.

Whether or not he actually uttered those exact words, they accurately capture the spirit of his pontificate.

For Leo X, beauty glorified God.

Magnificent churches inspired worship.

Artists revealed divine truths.

Music elevated the soul.

Libraries preserved civilisation.

In many respects he was correct.

Without Medici patronage the world might never have inherited many of the masterpieces that continue to inspire millions today.

Patrons of Genius

Perhaps the greatest achievement of the Medici popes lies not in theology but culture.

They funded artists whose works still define Western civilisation.

Among those who flourished under Medici patronage were:

Michelangelo Buonarroti

Raphael

Leonardo da Vinci (through broader Medici patronage before the papacies)

Baldassare Peruzzi

Giulio Romano

The rebuilding of St Peter’s Basilica accelerated dramatically during their reigns.

The Vatican became a centre not only of religion but scholarship, archaeology, architecture, literature and music.

Classical manuscripts were preserved.

Ancient sculpture was collected.

Humanist learning flourished.

Ironically, many Protestants who denounced papal corruption nevertheless admired the artistic achievements funded by those very popes.

The Renaissance reached its fullest expression under the Medici.

The Cost of Splendour

Great art came with an enormous price.

The construction of St Peter’s Basilica alone required staggering sums.

Maintaining the papal court demanded even more.

Wars between Italian states drained the treasury.

Patronage networks required constant funding.

Luxury became expected.

Money had to come from somewhere.

That somewhere increasingly became the faithful.

Taxes increased.

Church offices were sold.

Benefices were granted for political loyalty.

Most notoriously, indulgence campaigns expanded across Europe.

Although indulgences themselves had long existed within Catholic theology, their aggressive promotion during Leo X’s reign convinced many ordinary Christians that salvation itself was being commercialised.

The Dominican friar Johann Tetzel became the public face of this fundraising.

His preaching provoked an Augustinian monk in Wittenberg.

That monk was Martin Luther.

The Protestant Reformation

No event shaped the Medici legacy more profoundly than the Protestant Reformation.

When Luther published his Ninety-five Theses in 1517, few imagined they would fracture Western Christianity.

Initially Leo X dismissed Luther as a troublesome monk.

The papacy underestimated both Luther’s determination and the widespread frustration simmering across Europe.

The issue was never simply indulgences.

People questioned:

corruption

absentee bishops

clerical wealth

papal taxation

political interference

moral standards among clergy

Printing presses spread reform ideas faster than Rome could suppress them.

By the time Leo realised the seriousness of the movement, events had escaped papal control.

Europe would never again be religiously united.

Clement VII and Catastrophe

If Leo X inadvertently ignited the Reformation, Clement VII inherited the fire.

His greatest political mistake was attempting to balance the competing ambitions of Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V.

The strategy failed spectacularly.

In 1527 imperial troops—many themselves Lutheran sympathisers—marched on Rome.

The Sack of Rome shocked Europe.

Churches were desecrated.

Nuns assaulted.

Priests murdered.

Cardinals ransomed.

Libraries destroyed.

Relics stolen.

The Pope himself fled through the Passetto di Borgo into the fortress of Castel Sant’Angelo, where he remained trapped for months.

Many contemporaries interpreted the catastrophe as divine judgement upon papal corruption.

Even loyal Catholics believed God had spoken.

England Breaks Away

As if the Reformation and Sack of Rome were not enough, Clement VII faced another impossible dilemma.

King Henry VIII sought an annulment from Catherine of Aragon.

Granting it would offend Emperor Charles V, Catherine’s nephew.

Refusing it risked alienating England.

Clement hesitated.

Years passed.

Eventually Henry rejected papal authority altogether.

The Church of England was born.

Another great kingdom slipped permanently beyond Rome’s control.

Leo XI: A Symbol Rather Than a Ruler

Leo XI’s pontificate lasted only twenty-seven days.

He achieved little in practical terms.

Yet symbolically his election represented the final flowering of Medici prestige.

The dynasty had produced three popes.

No family better embodied the fusion of banking, politics, Renaissance culture and ecclesiastical power.

His early death marked the end of Medici dominance within the papacy.

The age of Renaissance princely popes was drawing to a close.

The Catholic Response

The Church did not ignore its failures forever.

The crisis eventually forced reform from within.

The Council of Trent (1545–1563) became the defining moment of the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

Many abuses associated with the Renaissance papacy were finally addressed.

Seminaries improved priestly education.

Discipline tightened.

The sale of offices was curbed.

Indulgence abuses were restricted.

Residence requirements for bishops were enforced.

Theological teaching became more clearly defined.

Ironically, the very excesses associated with the Medici helped produce a stronger and more disciplined Catholic Church.

A Balanced Verdict

Modern historians increasingly avoid simplistic judgements.

The Medici popes were neither saints nor monsters.

They were Renaissance princes occupying a medieval office that was rapidly becoming unsuited to Renaissance politics.

Their failures reflected broader problems affecting European society.

Many bishops lived extravagantly.

Many monarchs interfered in religion.

Corruption existed throughout Europe.

Yet the popes bore greater responsibility because they claimed moral leadership over Christendom.

Their greatest failure was allowing worldly ambition to overshadow spiritual renewal.

Their greatest achievement was fostering one of history’s greatest cultural renaissances.

Few individuals have simultaneously inspired Michelangelo’s masterpieces and Martin Luther’s rebellion.

Their Lasting Legacy

More than five centuries later, the Medici popes continue to fascinate because they embody one of history’s greatest paradoxes.

They presided over extraordinary beauty while overlooking profound institutional decay.

They enriched civilisation with magnificent art while contributing to Christianity’s greatest division.

Their Rome dazzled the eye but often disappointed the conscience.

Yet history is rarely black and white.

Without the Medici there may have been no High Renaissance as we know it.

Without their mistakes there may never have been the sweeping reforms that revitalised the Catholic Church after Trent.

Their story reminds us that great civilisations often produce brilliance and blindness in equal measure.

The Medici popes stand as enduring symbols of an age when faith, politics, money and art became so closely entwined that separating them became almost impossible. Their triumphs still fill museums and churches. Their failures reshaped the religious map of Europe.

Few families have left a deeper mark on both the history of Christianity and the history of Western civilisation.

Tim Alderman ©️2026

Sources

The Oxford History of the Popes

A History of the Popes

The Renaissance Popes

The Reformation

The Renaissance

The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy

The Medici Popes – Part 4

Article, Church History, General Interest, History, Religion/Lifestyle, , , ,

Indulgences: From Spiritual Remedy to Renaissance Scandal

“When the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”
—attributed to Johann Tetzel

No aspect of Renaissance Catholicism has become more infamous than the sale of indulgences.

To many modern people, indulgences seem absurd—a medieval version of paying money to erase sins. Protestants often portray them as evidence of wholesale corruption, while Catholics frequently argue they have been misunderstood.

The truth lies somewhere between these extremes.

Indulgences did not begin as financial transactions. They emerged from centuries of Christian theology concerning sin, repentance and forgiveness. Yet by the early sixteenth century they had become intertwined with fundraising, politics and monumental building projects. Under the Medici pope Leo X, the abuse of indulgences reached such a level that it provoked one German monk—Martin Luther—to challenge the Church itself.

That challenge became the Protestant Reformation.

Understanding Sin

To understand indulgences, it is necessary first to understand how medieval Catholic theology viewed sin.

According to Church teaching, every sin carried two consequences.

The first was eternal punishment—separation from God.

The second was temporal punishment—the spiritual damage left even after forgiveness.

Imagine breaking a neighbour’s window.

Your neighbour forgives you.

The relationship is restored.

But the window still has to be repaired.

Catholic theology viewed sin in much the same way.

Confession restored the relationship with God, but the spiritual consequences remained.

Those consequences were believed to be purified through:

prayer

fasting

acts of charity

pilgrimages

suffering

or after death in Purgatory.

An indulgence addressed only this temporal punishment.

It did not forgive sins.

Only confession and genuine repentance could do that.

Pope Leo X

Purgatory

By the Middle Ages, belief in Purgatory had become deeply embedded in Western Christianity.

Most people believed few souls were holy enough to enter Heaven immediately.

Instead, they underwent purification.

This purification could last years—or, in medieval imagination, even centuries.

Families desperately wanted to shorten this suffering.

The Church taught that prayers, Masses and indulgences could assist souls in Purgatory.

This belief became enormously influential.

The Treasury of Merit

Another theological concept underpinned indulgences.

The Church taught that Christ’s sacrifice possessed infinite merit.

In addition, saints had accumulated spiritual merit through exceptionally holy lives.

Together these formed the Treasury of Merit.

As Christ’s representative on Earth, the Pope possessed authority to dispense this treasury for the benefit of believers.

Originally this concept had little to do with money.

The Earliest Indulgences

The first indulgences appeared during the early Middle Ages.

Originally they reduced harsh public penances.

A murderer might be required to undertake years of fasting.

Participation in certain acts of devotion could reduce part of this obligation.

Eventually indulgences became linked to pilgrimages.

Travelling to Rome, Jerusalem or Santiago de Compostela could earn spiritual benefits.

The Crusades further expanded the idea.

Popes granted complete indulgences to those risking their lives fighting in the Holy Land.

From Penance to Fundraising

Over centuries, indulgences became associated with charitable giving.

Donating money to hospitals…

Supporting monasteries…

Funding bridges…

Helping the poor…

Supporting crusades…

All became recognised as pious acts deserving spiritual reward.

Initially the emphasis remained on genuine charity.

But human nature—and institutional need—gradually changed the equation.

Renaissance Popes Need Money

The Renaissance papacy was astonishingly expensive.

Popes ruled territories.

Maintained armies.

Built palaces.

Commissioned artists.

Supported diplomats.

Patronised scholars.

Fought wars.

The Vatican increasingly resembled the court of a powerful Italian prince.

The Medici understood magnificence.

Florence itself had been transformed through Medici patronage.

As pope, Leo X inherited enormous financial obligations.

He had also inherited one of the greatest building projects in European history.

St Peter’s Basilica

Old St Peter’s Basilica had stood for over one thousand years.

By the early sixteenth century it was deteriorating.

Pope Julius II ordered its demolition and replacement with an entirely new basilica.

The scale was staggering.

The finest architects.

The greatest sculptors.

The most expensive materials.

It would become the largest church in Christendom.

Construction consumed fortunes.

When Leo X became pope in 1513, the project desperately required funding.

Indulgences offered an obvious solution.

The Great Indulgence Campaign

Leo X authorised an extensive indulgence campaign across Europe.

The official purpose was raising money for St Peter’s Basilica.

The campaign also served another purpose.

A young German prince,

Pope Leo X…the most extravagant pope in history

Archbishop Albert of Brandenburg,

had borrowed enormous sums to secure multiple ecclesiastical offices.

The powerful Fugger banking family financed these payments.

Half the indulgence income repaid Albert’s debts.

The remaining half financed St Peter’s.

Church, prince and bankers all benefited.

Johann Tetzel

The Dominican friar Johann Tetzel became the campaign’s most famous preacher.

Tetzel was a gifted public speaker.

He travelled from town to town delivering emotional sermons about Purgatory.

He described:

parents crying for help,

children suffering in flames,

husbands pleading for release.

Then came the solution.

Purchase an indulgence.

Whether Tetzel actually used the famous slogan:

“As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from Purgatory springs”

remains debated.

Regardless, the phrase perfectly captured popular perception.

People believed salvation could be purchased.

What the Church Officially Taught

Official Catholic teaching remained more restrained.

The Church insisted:

repentance remained essential;

confession remained necessary;

indulgences could not forgive sin;

indulgences could not guarantee salvation.

Unfortunately these theological distinctions often disappeared in popular preaching.

Ordinary people heard something much simpler.

Pay.

Receive spiritual benefits.

Martin Luther Objects

In 1517, an Augustinian monk named Martin Luther watched Tetzel’s campaign with increasing alarm.

Luther accepted indulgences in principle.

Initially.

What disturbed him was their abuse.

Poor villagers believed they could purchase forgiveness.

Many neglected confession.

Some imagined future sins could be prepaid.

Others purchased indulgences instead of changing their lives.

Luther saw this as spiritually disastrous.

On 31 October 1517 he published his famous Ninety-five Theses.

Many challenged indulgence preaching directly.

One asked:

Why does the Pope not simply empty Purgatory out of love instead of demanding money?

Another questioned why St Peter’s should be built using the savings of poor peasants rather than papal wealth.

The questions spread with astonishing speed thanks to the recently invented printing press.

Pope Leo X

Leo X Responds

Initially Leo X dismissed Luther.

He reportedly regarded him as merely:

“a drunken German monk.”

That proved a serious miscalculation.

Within a few years Luther had attracted widespread support.

Attempts to silence him only increased his influence.

By 1521 he had been excommunicated.

The division of Western Christianity had begun.

Reform Within the Catholic Church

Ironically, many Catholic leaders also recognised abuses.

The Council of Trent (1545–1563) retained indulgences but condemned their misuse.

The Church prohibited:

financial abuses;

commercialisation;

misleading preaching.

Indulgences remained part of Catholic theology.

Their sale did not.

“Pope Leo X (after Raphael)”, Fernando Botero, oil on canvas, 1964

Indulgences Today

Modern Catholic indulgences still exist.

They are granted for acts such as:

Eucharistic adoration;

reading Scripture;

praying the Rosary;

making pilgrimages;

participating in designated Holy Year events.

No money changes hands.

The emphasis is entirely on repentance, prayer and spiritual renewal.

Many non-Catholics remain sceptical of the theology itself, but the notorious Renaissance practice of effectively “selling” indulgences has long been abolished.

The Medici Legacy

For the Medici pope Leo X, indulgences solved an immediate financial problem.

They helped fund one of history’s greatest churches.

Yet they also exposed the dangers of mixing spiritual authority with financial necessity.

The magnificent dome of St Peter’s Basilica still dominates the Roman skyline, a masterpiece of Renaissance art and engineering. But beneath its stones lies a more complicated story—one in which faith, power, money and human ambition became inseparably entwined.

The irony is striking.

The very campaign intended to glorify the papacy instead triggered the greatest religious rupture in Western history.

Without the indulgence controversy, Martin Luther might have remained an obscure university professor.

Instead, the Medici pope Leo X inadvertently helped reshape Christianity forever.

Tim Alderman ©️2026

Sources

Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.), §§1471–1479.

The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press.

The Reformation.

Martin Luther: Renegade and Prophet.

The Renaissance Popes.

The Stripping of the Altars.

A History of Christianity.

God, Gold and the Medici Popes

Article, Church History, General Interest, History, Religion/Lifestyle, , , ,

Part Three: Clement VII and the Sack of Rome

When historians discuss the Medici popes, Leo X usually steals the limelight. He was flamboyant, cultured and extravagant—the perfect Renaissance prince wearing

Electrotype Medal Replica – Pope Clement VII 

Photographer: Heath Warwick 

Source: Museums Victoria

the tiara of St Peter.

Yet if Leo represented the high-water mark of Medici ambition, his cousin Giulio de’ Medici, who became Pope Clement VII, presided over one of the greatest catastrophes in papal history.

His reign witnessed the destruction of Rome, the humiliation of the papacy, the further spread of the Protestant Reformation, and the beginning of England’s break with Rome.

Few popes inherited such a glittering legacy.

Few saw it unravel so spectacularly.

Clement VII

An Illegitimate Beginning

Giulio de’ Medici entered the world under difficult circumstances.

He was born in 1478, the illegitimate son of Giuliano de’ Medici, Lorenzo the Magnificent’s younger brother.

His father never saw him grow up.

Only months after Giulio’s birth came one of Renaissance Italy’s most infamous political murders—the Pazzi Conspiracy.

During High Mass in Florence Cathedral on Easter Sunday 1478, conspirators attacked the Medici brothers.

Giuliano was stabbed repeatedly and died beneath the cathedral floor.

Lorenzo escaped only because he managed to barricade himself inside the sacristy.

The conspiracy failed, but it changed Florence forever.

The surviving conspirators were hunted down with remarkable speed. Some were hanged from the windows of the Palazzo della Signoria before the day was out. Others met equally brutal ends.

The orphaned Giulio was raised under the protection of the Medici family.

From childhood he learned a lesson that would shape his entire life:

Power could disappear overnight.

A Reluctant Statesman

Unlike Leo X, Clement VII wasn’t remembered as a lover of spectacle.

He was intelligent.

Careful.

Diplomatic.

Some historians describe him as thoughtful; others call him indecisive.

Both assessments may be true.

He had inherited a Europe unlike the one Leo had enjoyed.

Martin Luther’s challenge had become a full-scale religious crisis.

France and the Holy Roman Empire were locked in an increasingly bitter struggle for dominance in Italy.

The Ottoman Turks were advancing in the east.

Every decision carried enormous consequences.

Unfortunately, Clement had an unfortunate habit of trying to keep everyone happy.

History rarely rewards that approach.

Europe Becomes a Chessboard

The two most powerful rulers in Europe were:

Francis I of France

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain

Both wanted control of Italy.

Both expected the Pope’s support.

Clement tried to remain neutral.

Neutrality proved impossible.

He shifted alliances repeatedly, hoping to preserve the independence of the Papal States while preventing either monarch from becoming too powerful.

Instead, he succeeded in alienating both.

The Road to Disaster

By 1526, Clement joined the League of Cognac, an alliance formed to resist Emperor Charles V’s growing dominance.

On paper, it looked formidable.

France.

Venice.

Milan.

Florence.

The Papacy.

In reality, it lacked unity, money and effective military leadership.

Charles V’s army—many of whom had gone unpaid for months—marched south toward Rome.

They were exhausted.

Hungry.

Poorly disciplined.

And increasingly difficult to control.

Among them were thousands of German Landsknechts, many of whom sympathised with Luther and regarded the Pope as the embodiment of the corruption they despised.

The situation was explosive.

Election of Pope Clement VII

The Sack of Rome

On 6 May 1527, imperial forces reached Rome.

Their commander, Charles de Bourbon, was killed almost immediately while scaling the city walls.

With no effective leadership, discipline collapsed.

What followed shocked Europe.

For months, Rome was subjected to murder, looting, torture and destruction.

Churches were desecrated.

Monasteries were plundered.

Nuns were assaulted.

Cardinals were ransomed.

Palaces were stripped bare.

Works of art disappeared forever.

Some soldiers mocked Catholic ceremonies while others simply stole anything of value.

The greatest city of the Renaissance became a city of terror.

The Last Stand of the Swiss Guard

One of the most enduring stories from that day concerns the Swiss Guard.

Created only twenty-one years earlier by Pope Julius II, they fought desperately on the steps of St Peter’s Basilica.

Of the 189 guards on duty, 147 were killed defending the Pope.

Their sacrifice allowed Clement VII to escape through the Passetto di Borgo, the elevated fortified passage connecting the Vatican with the massive fortress of Castel Sant’Angelo.

He reached safety.

His defenders did not.

Even today, new Swiss Guards are sworn in on 6 May, commemorating that extraordinary act of loyalty.

A Prisoner in His Own City

Clement survived.

Freedom did not.

For months he remained effectively a prisoner inside Castel Sant’Angelo while negotiations dragged on.

Eventually he surrendered.

He paid an enormous ransom.

He ceded territory.

He accepted humiliating conditions.

The Bishop of Rome had become little more than a political hostage.

It was an image the papacy would spend centuries trying to erase.

Pope Clement VII’s scheming backfired in the worst possible way

Florence Turns Against the Medici

News of Rome’s fall spread rapidly.

In Florence, the Medici were expelled.

The republic was restored.

Ironically, the catastrophe that had devastated the Pope also threatened his family’s political power at home.

Only later, with imperial assistance, would Medici rule in Florence be restored.

The family survived.

Its prestige never entirely recovered.

Henry VIII Arrives

While Clement struggled to rebuild his shattered authority, another problem landed on his desk.

King Henry VIII of England wanted his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled.

Ordinarily, such requests could often be resolved through legal and diplomatic channels.

But Catherine happened to be the aunt of…

Charles V.

The same emperor whose troops had recently imprisoned the Pope.

Clement found himself trapped.

Grant the annulment and risk offending Charles.

Refuse it and alienate England.

He delayed.

He negotiated.

He hesitated.

In the end, Henry lost patience.

The result was the English Reformation and the birth of the Church of England.

Whether Clement could realistically have chosen differently remains one of history’s great “what if?” questions.

The End of the Renaissance Papacy

Many historians see the Sack of Rome as the symbolic end of the High Renaissance.

The carefree optimism that had characterised Leo X’s court vanished.

Art became more restrained.

Religion became more serious.

The Protestant Reformation gathered pace.

Within a generation, the Catholic Church would begin its own profound internal renewal through the Council of Trent.

The age of dazzling Renaissance popes was over.

The age of reform had begun.


Electrotype Medal Replica – Pope Clement VII 
Photographer: Heath Warwick 
Source: Museums Victoria

Clement’s Legacy

Clement VII is often remembered as an indecisive pope overwhelmed by events beyond his control.

That judgement may be too harsh.

He inherited a Europe in religious upheaval, caught between ambitious monarchs, rising Protestantism and shifting alliances.

His greatest failing was not a lack of intelligence, but an inability to make decisive choices quickly enough in a world that no longer rewarded caution.

Unlike Leo X, who left behind magnificent works of art, Clement left behind lessons in the dangers of political hesitation.

History can be unforgiving to rulers who try to please everyone.

Sometimes the choice not made becomes the decision that changes the world.

We’ll separate popular myth from Catholic theology, explain how indulgences actually worked, why abuses became so widespread, and why a German monk named Martin Luther believed the entire system had gone disastrously wrong. That essay will connect directly back to Leo X and show how ideas, money and politics combined to reshape Christianity.

Tim Alderman ©️2026

God, Gold and the Medici Popes

Article, Church History, General Interest, History, Religion/Lifestyle, , , ,

Part Two: Leo X – The Renaissance Pope Who Changed History

If there was ever a pope who perfectly embodied the splendour—and the excesses—of the Renaissance, it was Giovanni de’ Medici, better known as Pope Leo X.

His election in 1513 marked the triumph of the Medici family. For decades they had dominated Florence through wealth and political skill. Now one of their own ruled not merely a city but the spiritual lives of millions of Christians.

Ironically, Leo X would become one of the most cultured popes in history—and one of the principal architects of the greatest religious schism Western Christianity had ever experienced.

Pope Leo X (1513-1521)

A Pope Born to Rule

Giovanni de’ Medici was born in 1475, the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent.

Unlike many churchmen who slowly climbed the ecclesiastical ladder, Giovanni scarcely had to climb at all.

His father ensured he entered the Church almost from infancy.

At just thirteen years of age he became a cardinal.

By modern standards this seems astonishing, but Renaissance Europe operated under different rules. Great noble families routinely secured church offices for their sons. Spiritual qualifications often came second to political usefulness.

For the Medici, placing Giovanni in the College of Cardinals was simply another investment.

One day it paid extraordinary dividends.

The Young Pope

When Pope Julius II died in 1513, Giovanni was elected pope at only thirty-seven.

He became Leo X.

Rome celebrated.

Europe celebrated.

Artists celebrated.

Bankers celebrated.

No one embodied Renaissance optimism more completely.

The Church had survived schisms, political wars and internal corruption. The Ottoman Empire threatened from the east, but Europe seemed prosperous and confident.

Leo intended to make Rome the artistic capital of the world.

In many respects, he succeeded.

Patron of Genius

Leo X adored beauty.

He spent enormous sums supporting painters, sculptors, architects, musicians and scholars.

Under his patronage:

Raphael continued decorating the Vatican.

St Peter’s Basilica expanded into the greatest church in Christendom.

Classical Greek and Roman learning flourished.

Printing, literature and music received generous support.

Rome became the cultural capital of Europe.

For historians of art, Leo’s reign represents one of civilisation’s golden ages.

Yet all of this magnificence came at an extraordinary financial cost.

The Money Problem

The papacy was wealthy.

It was not wealthy enough.

Leo inherited significant debts and rapidly accumulated even larger ones.

Court life became spectacularly expensive.

Banquets.

Festivals.

Building projects.

Diplomatic gifts.

Lavish ceremonies.

Patronage.

Everything required money.

Lots of it.

One contemporary remarked that Leo seemed to believe the papal treasury was inexhaustible.

Unfortunately, it wasn’t.

The bills eventually had to be paid.

St Peter’s Basilica

Nothing symbolised Leo’s ambitions more than the rebuilding of St Peter’s Basilica.

The medieval church built over the traditional tomb of St Peter was deteriorating.

Leo envisioned something entirely different.

A building worthy of the Prince of the Apostles.

The greatest church on earth.

The basilica would eventually become one of humanity’s greatest architectural achievements.

But construction costs were astronomical.

Finding the money became increasingly urgent.

Enter the Indulgences

To help finance St Peter’s, the Church expanded the preaching and sale of indulgences.

This is where our next article naturally begins.

Many people today imagine indulgences as “buying forgiveness.”

The reality was more complicated.

According to Catholic theology, forgiveness came through repentance and confession.

An indulgence dealt with the temporal punishment believed to remain after sin had been forgiven.

The theological distinction was subtle.

Unfortunately, many preachers explained it very badly.

Others deliberately exaggerated what indulgences could accomplish because exaggerated promises attracted larger donations.

Money flowed into Rome.

So did criticism.

A Monk in Germany

Far away in the German town of Wittenberg lived an Augustinian monk named Martin Luther.

Luther watched indulgence preachers making extraordinary claims.

One famous Dominican friar, Johann Tetzel, became notorious for promoting indulgences in language many believed grossly distorted Church teaching.

Whether every quotation attributed to Tetzel is authentic remains debated by historians, but his preaching became symbolic of everything Luther believed was wrong with the Church.

In 1517 Luther published his famous Ninety-five Theses.

Leo X initially regarded the dispute as a minor quarrel among German monks.

He underestimated its significance.

So did almost everyone else.

Within a few years Europe would never be the same again.

A Renaissance Prince More Than a Spiritual Reformer

Leo X has often been criticised for treating the papacy more like a Renaissance court than a spiritual office.

That criticism contains some truth.

He enjoyed hunting.

He loved theatre.

He delighted in elaborate celebrations.

He appreciated fine food, conversation and music.

None of these things made him uniquely immoral by Renaissance standards.

The real problem was one of priorities.

While Leo was fostering artistic brilliance in Rome, dissatisfaction with the Church was spreading across northern Europe.

He failed to grasp how serious the crisis had become.

Did Leo Cause the Reformation?

Not entirely.

The causes had been building for centuries.

Church corruption.

Political tensions.

National rivalries.

Calls for reform.

The invention of the printing press.

Growing literacy.

Economic change.

All were important.

Yet Leo X undoubtedly accelerated events.

His financial policies, particularly the indulgence campaign connected with St Peter’s, provided the spark that ignited a movement already waiting for ignition.

The Irony of Leo X

History judges Leo X in two very different ways.

Art historians remember him as one of the greatest patrons of the Renaissance.

Church historians often see him as the pope who failed to recognise the approaching storm.

His reign produced magnificent art that still inspires millions.

It also witnessed the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, permanently dividing Western Christianity.

Few popes have left such a contradictory legacy.

Tim Alderman ©️2026

The Medici Popes – Part One

Article, Church History, General Interest, History, Political, Religion/Lifestyle, Social History, , , ,

The Rise of the Medici: From Wool Merchants to Princes of the Church

Few families have left a greater mark on Western civilisation than the Medici of Florence. Their story is one of astonishing ambition. Beginning as modest merchants, they built Europe’s most powerful banking empire, became the unofficial rulers of Florence, financed kings and popes, transformed Renaissance art, and ultimately placed members of their own family upon the throne of St Peter.

To admirers, the Medici were enlightened patrons whose wealth helped produce one of history’s greatest cultural flowerings. Without them, the masterpieces of Michelangelo, Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci might never have been created, or at least not in the forms we know today.

To critics, they represented everything that was wrong with the Renaissance Church: nepotism, political manipulation, extravagant wealth and the blurring of spiritual leadership with dynastic ambition.

Both views contain considerable truth.

Understanding the Medici popes requires first understanding the remarkable family that produced them.

Florence: A Republic Unlike Any Other

The Medici story begins not in Rome but in Florence.

In the fourteenth century Florence was one of Europe’s wealthiest cities. Although technically a republic, political power was dominated by wealthy merchant families who competed constantly for influence.

Unlike the feudal nobility of France or England, Florence’s elite earned their fortunes through commerce rather than inherited titles.

Textiles, particularly wool and later silk, generated enormous wealth.

Banking generated even more.

Florentine bankers financed monarchs, merchants, trading expeditions and, perhaps most importantly, the papacy itself.

Money became political power.

Political power became social prestige.

Social prestige, eventually, became religious influence.

The Origins of the Medici

The exact origins of the Medici family remain somewhat obscure.

Tradition claimed they descended from an ancient knight who had served Charlemagne, but historians generally regard this as later family mythology designed to enhance noble status.

The family was more likely descended from prosperous farmers and merchants in the Mugello valley north of Florence.

Their surname, Medici, simply means “physicians.”

Whether an ancestor actually practised medicine remains uncertain.

By the late thirteenth century, members of the family had established themselves in Florence as successful businessmen.

They were respectable.

They were comfortable.

They were not yet extraordinary.

That would soon change.

Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici; this portrait by
Alessandro Allori hangs in the Uffizi in Florence

Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici

The true founder of Medici greatness was Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici (c.1360–1429).

Unlike many wealthy Florentines, Giovanni possessed two remarkable qualities.

He was financially brilliant.

He knew when not to attract attention.

Rather than openly seeking political office, Giovanni concentrated on banking.

His greatest achievement was establishing the Medici Bank.

Within decades it became Europe’s most successful financial institution.

Branches appeared across the continent.

Rome.

Venice.

Milan.

Naples.

Geneva.

Bruges.

London.

Each branch expanded the family’s wealth—and influence.

But Giovanni secured an even greater prize.

Bankers to the Papacy

The medieval papacy required enormous financial services.

Church taxes flowed from every corner of Europe.

Funds had to be transferred across kingdoms.

Loans financed wars, construction projects and administration.

The Vatican needed reliable bankers.

The Medici became those bankers.

Being entrusted with papal finances brought immense profits.

It also brought unparalleled political connections.

Every pope became, in effect, a valuable client.

This relationship between the Medici and successive popes would eventually culminate in an extraordinary reversal.

Instead of merely serving popes…

The Medici would become them.

Cosimo de’ Medic

Cosimo de’ Medici: The Real Architect

When Giovanni died in 1429, leadership passed to his son Cosimo de’ Medici, later known as Cosimo the Elder.

If Giovanni built the fortune, Cosimo transformed it into political power.

Cosimo rarely held formal office.

He understood that visible power invited opposition.

Instead, he perfected influence behind the scenes.

Political allies received financial support.

Enemies found credit difficult to obtain.

Favours created obligations.

Debts created loyalty.

Florence remained officially a republic.

Unofficially, it increasingly revolved around one family.

Many historians have described Cosimo as Europe’s first great political banker.

Exile—and Triumph

Power inevitably bred resentment.

In 1433 Cosimo’s rivals succeeded in having him arrested.

He was imprisoned and sentenced to exile.

For many families this would have ended the story.

For the Medici it became only a brief interruption.

Within a year public opinion, commercial interests and political allies had shifted.

Cosimo returned to Florence in triumph.

His enemies, rather than Cosimo himself, were forced into exile.

The lesson was unmistakable.

The Medici had become indispensable.

Wealth Put to Work

Unlike many wealthy rulers, Cosimo spent lavishly on public works.

Churches.

Libraries.

Hospitals.

Monasteries.

Scholarship.

Architecture.

He commissioned magnificent buildings while quietly encouraging the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman learning.

The Renaissance was already underway.

Cosimo accelerated it.

His patronage attracted artists, architects, philosophers and scholars whose influence would spread throughout Europe.

This generosity also served practical purposes.

A grateful population proved far easier to govern.

A New Kind of Power

The Medici demonstrated something Europe had rarely seen before.

Power no longer depended solely upon swords or inherited titles.

Money itself had become a political weapon.

Loans could achieve what armies sometimes could not.

Influence could be purchased without firing a single arrow.

The Medici became masters of what we would now recognise as financial diplomacy.

Kings needed them.

Merchants relied upon them.

Popes trusted them.

That combination made the family extraordinarily difficult to challenge.

Seeds of Future Trouble

Yet hidden beneath this success lay dangerous contradictions.

The Church preached humility.

The Medici accumulated immense wealth.

The Gospel warned against earthly riches.

The Vatican increasingly relied upon powerful banking families.

Religious offices gradually became entwined with political ambition.

Church appointments frequently reflected family influence as much as spiritual merit.

These tensions would grow steadily throughout the fifteenth century.

By the early sixteenth century they would contribute directly to one of Christianity’s greatest upheavals: the Protestant Reformation.

Ironically, one of the central figures in that drama would be a Medici pope.

Looking Ahead

When Cosimo died in 1464, the Medici were already the most powerful family in Florence.

Yet their greatest triumph—and greatest controversies—still lay ahead.

The next generation would produce Lorenzo the Magnificent, arguably the most celebrated patron of the Renaissance, whose glittering court nurtured artists including Michelangelo and Botticelli. But it would also face conspiracy, assassination attempts, foreign invasion and growing criticism of the Church.

From this extraordinary world would emerge the first Medici pope.

His election would alter the course of both the papacy and European history.

Tim Alderman ©️2026

Sources

Christopher Hibbert, The House of Medici: Its Rise and Fall.

Paul Strathern, The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance.

John M. Najemy, A History of Florence 1200–1575.

Lauro Martines, April Blood: Florence and the Plot Against the Medici.

Tim Parks, Medici Money: Banking, Metaphysics and Art in Fifteenth-Century Florence.

Peter Partner, Renaissance Rome 1500–1559.

Will Durant, The Renaissance (The Story of Civilization, Vol. 5).

The Borgia Popes: Power, Poison and the Black Legend of Renaissance Rome

Article, Church History, General Interest, History, Political, Religion/Lifestyle, , , , ,

Few names in history evoke such images of corruption, intrigue and murder as the Borgias. To generations of writers, artists and filmmakers they have become the ultimate symbol of a decadent Renaissance papacy—where cardinals schemed, enemies were poisoned, illegitimate children became princes, and the throne of Saint Peter was treated as another prize in the struggle for political power.

Pope Alexander VI

Yet the truth is more complicated than legend. While the Borgia family undoubtedly practised nepotism and political manipulation on a grand scale, many of the darker stories surrounding them were amplified by enemies who had every reason to destroy their reputation.

The Borgias remain one of history’s most fascinating dynasties because they sit at the intersection of religion, politics, warfare and myth.

From Spain to Italy

Unlike many of the great Roman families, the Borgias were outsiders.

The family originated in the Kingdom of Aragon in what is now Spain. Their original surname was Borja, later Italianised to Borgia after family members established themselves in Italy.

Their rise began with Alfonso de Borja, a respected jurist and diplomat whose intelligence and political skill earned him the favour of kings and popes.

In 1455 he became Pope Callixtus III.

Pope Callixtus III (1455–1458)

Callixtus III is remembered today for two very different reasons.

The first was his attempt to organise a crusade against the advancing Ottoman Empire after the fall of Constantinople.

The second—and historically more significant—was his extraordinary promotion of family members.

Like many Renaissance popes, he believed trusted relatives were more reliable than ambitious Roman nobles.

Among those relatives was a brilliant young nephew named Rodrigo Borgia.

At only twenty-five years of age Rodrigo became a cardinal.

Few appointments better illustrate Renaissance nepotism.

Pope Callixtus III

Rodrigo Borgia

If Callixtus laid the foundations, Rodrigo built the dynasty.

Exceptionally intelligent, politically gifted and personally charming, Rodrigo spent more than thirty years learning every aspect of Vatican government.

He became one of the wealthiest and most influential cardinals in Europe.

He also ignored clerical celibacy.

Rodrigo openly fathered several children, including:

Cesare Borgia

Juan (Giovanni) Borgia

Lucrezia Borgia

Gioffre Borgia

Although shocking by modern standards, many Renaissance churchmen maintained mistresses and families with relatively little secrecy.

The scandal lay less in the existence of children than in the political advantages bestowed upon them.

Pope Alexander VI

In 1492 Rodrigo was elected pope, taking the name Alexander VI.

His election has long been associated with accusations of bribery.

Whether votes were literally purchased remains debated, but there is little doubt that promises, patronage and political bargaining influenced papal elections during this era.

Alexander VI quickly transformed the Vatican into the headquarters of the Borgia family.

His children became central figures in Italian politics.

Cesare Borgia

Cesare Borgia

No member of the family has attracted greater fascination than Cesare Borgia.

Originally destined for the Church, he resigned his cardinalship after the death of his brother Juan.

This alone was almost unprecedented.

Cesare instead became a military commander determined to carve out a principality in central Italy.

Supported by papal wealth and diplomacy, he conquered city after city.

His ruthless efficiency attracted the admiration of the Florentine diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli.

Many historians believe Cesare became one of the principal inspirations for The Prince.

Lucrezia Borgia

If any Borgia has suffered from historical exaggeration, it is Lucrezia.

Popular legend portrays her as a beautiful poisoner who murdered rivals with secret toxins concealed in rings.

Evidence for these stories is remarkably thin.

In reality, Lucrezia was married several times to strengthen Borgia political alliances.

These marriages often ended in tragedy—not because she engineered them, but because shifting alliances made husbands politically inconvenient.

Later in life she became Duchess of Ferrara and earned respect as a capable administrator, patron of the arts and devoted mother.

Modern historians increasingly regard her as one of the principal victims of the Borgia legend rather than one of its villains.

Lucrezia Borgia

Poison and Murder

No discussion of the Borgias can avoid poison.

Almost every dramatic retelling depicts elaborate murders using a mysterious poison known as cantarella.

The problem is evidence.

While poison undoubtedly existed in Renaissance Italy, historians remain divided over whether the Borgias possessed a unique poison or whether later writers embroidered rumours into sensational legend.

Political assassination certainly occurred.

Whether the Borgias were uniquely murderous is another matter entirely.

Their enemies proved equally capable of violence.

Nepotism on a Grand Scale

The Borgias perfected Renaissance nepotism.

Family members received:

Cardinals’ hats.

Duchies.

Military commands.

Lucrative church offices.

Vast estates.

This was hardly unique.

Nearly every Renaissance pope advanced relatives.

The Borgias simply did it more openly—and more successfully—than most.

The French Invasions

Alexander VI’s pontificate coincided with the beginning of the Italian Wars.

France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and numerous Italian states competed for dominance.

The Pope constantly shifted alliances in an attempt to preserve both the Papal States and Borgia interests.

This balancing act required diplomacy, deception and occasionally outright ruthlessness.

The Sudden Collapse

Alexander VI died suddenly in August 1503.

Rumours immediately circulated that he had accidentally poisoned himself while attempting to poison someone else.

The story is irresistible.

It is also unsupported.

Modern scholars generally suspect malaria or another infectious illness, which was widespread in Rome during the summer.

Without Alexander, Cesare rapidly lost political support.

Within a few years the extraordinary Borgia empire had collapsed.

The Black Legend

Why are the Borgias remembered as uniquely evil?

Part of the answer lies in propaganda.

Their enemies included powerful Italian families, hostile cardinals, foreign rulers and later Protestant writers eager to demonstrate the corruption of Renaissance Catholicism.

The resulting “Black Legend” painted every rumour as fact.

Incest.

Poison.

Orgies.

Murder.

Secret chambers.

Some stories contain kernels of truth.

Others have no contemporary evidence whatsoever.

Separating history from legend remains one of the great challenges facing Borgia scholars.

Their Lasting Legacy

Ironically, the Borgias helped create the conditions that eventually led to reform.

The spectacle of Renaissance papal politics fuelled growing criticism of the Church.

Only fourteen years after Alexander VI’s death, Martin Luther published his Ninety-five Theses.

While the Reformation had many causes, memories of Renaissance excess undoubtedly weakened confidence in papal leadership.

Today the Borgias survive less as historical figures than as cultural icons.

Novels, films and television series continue to portray them as Renaissance supervillains.

The truth is both less sensational and more interesting.

They were ambitious politicians operating within an age where dynastic power, family loyalty and political violence were accepted tools of government. Their methods were often ruthless, but rarely unique.

The Borgias did not invent corruption within the Renaissance Church.

They simply became its most enduring symbol.

Tim Alderman ©️2026

Sources

Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and Their Enemies.

Sarah Bradford, Cesare Borgia: His Life and Times.

Sarah Bradford, Lucrezia Borgia.

G. J. Meyer, The Borgias: The Hidden History.

Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince.

John Julius Norwich, Absolute Monarchs: A History of the Papacy.

Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes.

Michael Mallett & Christine Shaw, The Italian Wars 1494–1559.

Indulgences (and the road to the Reformation).

The Medici Popes (our next major feature).

The Borgia Popes.

Clerical Celibacy and Church Wealth.

The Palmarian Catholic Church.

Sodalicio de Vida Cristiana.

Gruppo del Rosario.

Angels: Heavenly Messengers, Divine Warriors, and the Evolution of One of Religion’s Most Enduring Beliefs

Article, Church History, General Interest, History, Religion/Lifestyle, , , , ,

“Across thousands of years, angels have comforted the dying, terrified prophets, guided armies, inspired artists and become symbols of hope. Yet the angels familiar to many people today often bear little resemblance to those described in the world’s sacred texts.”

Few religious ideas have captured the human imagination quite like angels. They appear in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, occupy an important place in ancient Persian thought, influence later Western mysticism, and have become enduring figures in literature, music and popular culture. They have been depicted as fearsome warriors, radiant messengers, protectors of children, guardians of nations and even executors of divine judgment.

Modern images of angels—gentle beings with flowing robes, golden halos and soft white wings—owe as much to Renaissance painters and Victorian sentimentality as they do to scripture. The angels encountered in the Bible are often startling, mysterious and, at times, terrifying. Their first words are frequently, “Do not be afraid,” suggesting that fear was the natural reaction to encountering them.

This article explores where the idea of angels came from, how it developed across the centuries, and why these celestial beings continue to fascinate believers and non-believers alike.

What Is an Angel?

The English word angel comes from the Greek angelos, meaning “messenger.” It translates the Hebrew word mal’akh, which carries essentially the same meaning.

The emphasis, therefore, is not on what angels are but on what they do.

They are God’s messengers.

Throughout the Bible they deliver warnings, announce births, protect individuals, interpret visions, carry out divine judgments and praise God. They are not portrayed as independent gods or supernatural beings with authority of their own, but as servants acting under divine command.

Angels Before Christianity

The earliest books of the Hebrew Bible say surprisingly little about angels.

In Genesis, mysterious visitors appear to Abraham.

Jacob wrestles through the night with a mysterious being.

An angel prevents Abraham from sacrificing Isaac.

The Angel of the Lord frequently appears, sometimes speaking as though he were God Himself—a mystery that has intrigued Jewish and Christian theologians for centuries.

Following the Babylonian Exile (sixth century BCE), Jewish beliefs about angels became more developed. Contact with Persian religion, particularly Zoroastrianism, may have encouraged more elaborate ideas about heavenly beings organised into ranks and engaged in cosmic struggles between good and evil. While scholars continue to debate the extent of that influence, angelology certainly became far more detailed during the Second Temple period.

Angels in Christianity

Christianity inherited Judaism’s belief in angels and expanded upon it.

The New Testament opens with angelic activity.

The Archangel Michael defeats Satan in the Book of Revelation.

The angel Gabriel announces the births of John the Baptist and Jesus.

Angels minister to Jesus after His temptation in the wilderness.

They comfort Him in Gethsemane.

They proclaim His resurrection.

They accompany His ascension.

Far from being decorative figures, angels are woven throughout the Christian story from beginning to end.

Angels in Islam

Islam also gives angels a central role.

They are created from light and possess complete obedience to God.

Among the best known are:

Jibril (Gabriel), who revealed the Qur’an to the Prophet Muhammad.

Mikail, associated with mercy and provision.

Israfil, who will sound the trumpet on the Day of Judgment.

Azrael, who receives the souls of the dead.

Islamic art generally avoids portraying angels in the naturalistic way common in Christian art, yet their presence in theology is profound.

The Nine Orders of Angels

One of Christianity’s most influential descriptions of heavenly hierarchy came from the mysterious sixth-century writer known as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite.

He divided angels into nine choirs arranged in three hierarchies.

First Hierarchy

Seraphim

The closest to God.

Isaiah describes them with six wings—two covering their faces, two covering their feet and two for flight—as they continually proclaim:

“Holy, holy, holy is the Lord.”

Cherubim

Modern greeting cards depict cherubs as chubby babies.

Biblical cherubim are anything but.

They guard Eden after Adam and Eve’s expulsion and support God’s heavenly throne.

The prophet Ezekiel describes them with multiple faces, wings and wheels filled with eyes—a vision that has puzzled readers for centuries.

Thrones

Associated with divine justice and God’s authority.

Little is said about them directly in scripture, but later theology regarded them as symbolic bearers of God’s throne.

Second Hierarchy

Dominions

Virtues

Powers

These oversee the ordering of the cosmos, miracles and the spiritual battle between good and evil.

Third Hierarchy

Principalities

Archangels

Angels

These interact most directly with humanity.

The Great Archangels

Only a handful are named in the canonical Bible.

Michael

Leader of Heaven’s armies.

Defeats Satan in Revelation.

Often portrayed with armour and sword.

Gabriel

The great messenger.

Announces the births of John the Baptist and Jesus.

A symbol of revelation and hope.

Raphael

Appears in the Book of Tobit, accepted by Catholics and Orthodox Christians but not by most Protestants.

Associated with healing and guidance.

Uriel

Accepted in several Orthodox traditions and some ancient writings.

Associated with wisdom and divine illumination.

Guardian Angels

The belief that every individual has a guardian angel developed gradually.

Several biblical passages hint at personal angelic protection, particularly Jesus’ statement that children have angels who continually behold the face of God.

By the Middle Ages the idea had become deeply embedded in Catholic devotion.

Guardian angels remain popular in Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and among many Protestants, although interpretations differ considerably.

Fallen Angels

No discussion of angels is complete without addressing the fallen.

Contrary to popular belief, the Bible gives surprisingly little detail about Satan’s fall.

Many later traditions combine passages from Isaiah, Ezekiel and Revelation into a single narrative.

Early Christian writers, medieval theologians and poets such as John Milton expanded these brief references into the richly developed story familiar today.

Milton’s Paradise Lost arguably shaped the popular image of rebellious angels more than scripture itself.

Angels in Art

No figures have inspired artists more consistently than angels.

The Renaissance transformed their appearance.

Artists such as Fra Angelico, Raphael and Michelangelo Buonarroti painted angels with idealised human beauty.

Victorian artists softened them even further into comforting, almost sentimental figures.

This image has remained enormously influential.

Angels in Popular Culture

Today angels appear everywhere.

They populate novels, films, television series and video games.

Some are biblical.

Others are romantic.

Some are superheroes.

Others are comic.

Theological accuracy is rarely the goal.

Instead, angels have become universal symbols of hope, protection and transcendence.

Whether in It’s a Wonderful Life, Touched by an Angel, or countless Christmas cards, they continue to reassure people that goodness exists beyond the visible world.

A Timeless Fascination

For believers, angels remain active servants of God who watch over creation and carry out His will.

For historians, they reveal how religious ideas develop across centuries, absorbing influences from different cultures while remaining rooted in sacred tradition.

For artists, they represent beauty, mystery and the longing to transcend earthly existence.

Perhaps that explains why angels have endured for more than three thousand years.

They stand at the boundary between heaven and earth, reminding humanity that throughout history people have imagined that they are not entirely alone—that somewhere beyond the visible world are messengers who carry hope, justice and divine purpose.

Whether viewed through the lens of faith, history or art, angels remain among humanity’s most enduring and captivating symbols.

Tim Alderman ©️2026

Sources

The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh)

The New Testament

The Qur’an

The Complete Dictionary of Angels

A History of Angels

The Celestial Hierarchy

Paradise Lost

The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church

Indulgences: Salvation for Sale? The Controversial Practice That Changed Christianity

Article, Church History, General Interest, Religion/Lifestyle, , ,

For centuries, the Roman Catholic Church taught that while sin could be forgiven through confession, the consequences of that sin might still remain. To address this, the Church developed one of the most controversial doctrines in Christian history—the indulgence.

To believers, indulgences represented God’s mercy administered through the Church. To critics, they became symbols of greed, corruption and spiritual manipulation. Their abuse would eventually spark the Protestant Reformation, permanently dividing Western Christianity.

Understanding the Concept

An indulgence is often misunderstood as the forgiveness of sin. It is not.

According to Catholic theology, there are two consequences of sin:

Eternal punishment, removed through genuine repentance and absolution in the Sacrament of Confession.

Temporal punishment, the lingering spiritual effects of sin that still require purification.

An indulgence removes all or part of this temporal punishment.

The Church teaches that Christ, together with the saints, accumulated an infinite “Treasury of Merit.” Because Jesus’ sacrifice was perfect and the saints lived exceptionally holy lives, their merits exceeded what was needed for their own salvation. The Pope, as successor to Saint Peter, was believed to possess the authority to dispense these merits for the benefit of the faithful.

This theological framework became one of the most distinctive features of medieval Catholicism.

Purgatory: The Missing Piece

The doctrine of indulgences cannot be understood without understanding Purgatory.

By the twelfth century, belief in Purgatory had become firmly established. It was viewed as a temporary state where souls destined for Heaven were purified before entering God’s presence.

This purification could be long and painful.

Naturally, Christians wanted to shorten that suffering—for themselves and for deceased loved ones.

Indulgences appeared to offer hope.

Early Indulgences

The earliest indulgences looked nothing like those that later scandalised Europe.

During the early Middle Ages, bishops granted reductions in severe public penances. A sinner might have been ordered to fast for years or undertake lengthy pilgrimages.

An indulgence simply reduced these earthly penalties.

Gradually the concept evolved.

Instead of reducing earthly penance, indulgences increasingly came to be understood as reducing punishment in Purgatory.

Crusades and Spiritual Rewards

The Crusades transformed indulgences.

In 1095 Pope Urban II promised a plenary indulgence—complete remission of temporal punishment—to those who fought in the First Crusade.

This proved enormously popular.

Suddenly military service could be viewed as an act of spiritual devotion.

Over succeeding centuries indulgences became attached to pilgrimages, charitable works, church building projects and religious observances.

Partial and Plenary Indulgences

Two forms developed.

Partial Indulgence

Removed part of the temporal punishment due to sin.

Plenary Indulgence

Removed all temporal punishment, provided certain conditions were met.

Modern Catholic teaching requires:

Sacramental confession

Reception of Holy Communion

Prayer for the Pope’s intentions

Complete detachment from all sin

Performance of the prescribed work

This last condition is often the one people notice—but it is only one element among several.

The Money Problem

The trouble began when indulgences became linked with fundraising.

Churches, monasteries, hospitals and cathedrals required enormous sums of money.

Popes increasingly authorised indulgences connected with donations.

Officially, money was never supposed to purchase forgiveness.

Rather, the donation was considered evidence of charity and repentance.

In practice, however, many ordinary Christians concluded that they were buying spiritual benefits.

That distinction proved disastrous.

Building St Peter’s Basilica

Perhaps the most famous indulgence campaign funded the rebuilding of St Peter’s Basilica in Rome.

Construction began under Pope Julius II and continued under Pope Leo X.

The project required staggering amounts of money.

Indulgence preachers travelled throughout Europe encouraging donations.

The campaign became especially controversial in the German states.

Johann Tetzel

No individual became more associated with indulgences than the Dominican friar Johann Tetzel.

He was a gifted preacher and fundraiser.

Although historians debate precisely what he said, he became associated with the famous rhyme:

“As soon as the coin in the coffer rings,
the soul from Purgatory springs.”

Whether Tetzel actually coined the phrase or whether opponents exaggerated his methods remains debated.

Nevertheless, many contemporaries believed indulgences had become little more than commercial transactions.

Martin Luther Strikes Back

On 31 October 1517 an Augustinian monk named Martin Luther challenged the practice.

His Ninety-five Theses criticised not the existence of indulgences themselves, but their abuse.

Among his complaints were:

Christians were being misled.

Genuine repentance mattered more than purchased certificates.

The Pope could not free souls from Purgatory simply through financial transactions.

Poor people were giving away money they desperately needed.

Thanks to the recently invented printing press, Luther’s arguments spread across Europe with astonishing speed.

The result was the Protestant Reformation.

The Church Responds

Initially, Church authorities attempted to defend indulgences.

However, the abuses had become impossible to ignore.

The Council of Trent (1545–1563) reaffirmed the legitimacy of indulgences but condemned dishonest fundraising and prohibited their commercial exploitation.

Professional indulgence sellers disappeared.

The theology remained.

The abuses were officially rejected.

Do Indulgences Still Exist?

Yes.

The Catholic Church still grants indulgences today.

Modern indulgences are associated with acts such as:

Reading Scripture prayerfully.

Eucharistic adoration.

Pilgrimages.

The Rosary.

Works of mercy.

Visiting designated holy sites during Jubilee Years.

Money no longer plays any official role.

Instead, the emphasis is placed upon sincere conversion, prayer and charity.

Common Myths

Several misconceptions persist.

Myth: Indulgences forgive sins.

Reality: Only repentance and sacramental confession forgive sin.

Myth: You can buy your way into Heaven.

Reality: Catholic teaching rejects this completely.

Myth: The Church sold Heaven.

Reality: While many clergy behaved as though spiritual benefits could be bought, official doctrine was more nuanced. The scandal arose because practice often failed to match theology.

Political Consequences

Indulgences did more than reshape theology.

They undermined confidence in Church leadership.

Princes who supported Luther gained greater independence from Rome.

Religious wars followed.

Entire nations rejected papal authority.

The map of Europe changed forever.

It is difficult to overstate the historical significance of indulgences.

A theological doctrine concerning the consequences of sin became one of the principal catalysts for one of the greatest upheavals in Western civilisation.

Legacy

Today, indulgences occupy a far quieter place within Catholic life.

They remain part of official teaching, but the dramatic fundraising campaigns that characterised the late Middle Ages belong to history.

Yet the controversy still echoes.

For many Protestants, indulgences remain symbolic of medieval corruption.

For Catholics, they represent a misunderstood expression of God’s mercy, one that suffered from very human abuse.

Perhaps the greatest lesson is not about indulgences themselves, but about the dangers that arise whenever religious authority, political power and money become too closely entwined. History shows that even sincere theological ideas can become distorted when financial interests enter the picture.

Tim Alderman 2026

Sources

Catechism of the Catholic Church, §§1471–1479.

Pope Paul VI, Indulgentiarum Doctrina (1967).

Council of Trent, Session XXV, Decree on Indulgences (1563).

Martin Luther, Ninety-five Theses (1517).

Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes.

Diarmaid MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History.

R. N. Swanson, Indulgences in Late Medieval England.

Thomas F. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades.